In a world confronting global climate change, political turmoil, weapons proliferation, nuclear power safety and waste disposal issues, the United States, argues Makhijani, must assume a key role in moving towards a zero-CO2 emissions energy economy. At the same time, he says, America also needs to take a lead in reducing the world's reliance on nuclear power.

This piercing study shows how our needs can best be met by alternative sources such as wind, solar, hydrogen, biomass, microalgae, geothermal, and wave power energy. "Carbon-Free and Nuclear-Free" is an invaluable reference for anyone with a serious interest in energy politics and the future of our planet.

PREFACE
A three-fold global energy crisis has emerged since the 1970s; it is now acute on all fronts.
1. Severe climate change, caused mainly by emissions of carbon dioxide from fossil fuel burning and associated emissions of other greenhouse gases;
2. The security of oil supplies, given the political and military turmoil in much of the oil exporting world, centered in the Persian Gulf region;
3. Nuclear weapons proliferation and its potential connections to the spread of nuclear energy to address climate change. ...

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Arjun Makhijani, Ph.D.
A Joint Project of the Nuclear Policy Research Institute and the Institute for Energy and Environmental Research, August 2007.

Foreword by S. David Freeman, President, Los Angeles Board of Harbor Commissioners and former chairman of the Tennessee Valley Authority and Afterword by Dr. Helen Caldicott, Founding President, Nuclear Policy Research Institute

Published jointly by IEER Press, Takoma Park, Maryland and RDR Books, Muskegon, Michigan.

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ABOUT THE AUTHOR
Arjun Makhijani is President of the Institute for Energy and Environmental Research, and leading expert on energy conservation and nuclear fuels.

CONTENTS
Foreword---------------------------------------------------------------------------------- ix
Acknowledgements-------------------------------------------------------------------- xiii
Preface------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ xv
A. Climate Change---------------------------------------------------------------------- xv
B. Nuclear Power and Nuclear Weapons Proliferation----------------------------xvii
C. Oil-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- xx
D. Lifestyles and Values---------------------------------------------------------------- xx
E. Conclusions--------------------------------------------------------------------------xxii
Chapter 1: Setting the Stage – A Brief Historical Overview---------------------1
A. The Need for a Zero-CO2 Economy in the United States------------------------1
B. Historical Overview-------------------------------------------------------------------4
Plan of the Book-------------------------------------------------------------------- 13
Chapter 2: Broad Energy and Economic Considerations---------------------- 14
A. Analysis of Energy Prices and Implicit CO2 Prices----------------------------- 18
1. Implicit CO2 Price in the Electricity Sector---------------------------------- 18
2. CO2 and Petroleum-------------------------------------------------------------- 24
B. Defining “Zero-CO2 Emissions”--------------------------------------------------- 26
Chapter 3: Technologies – Supply, Storage, and Conversion------------------ 28
A. Wind Energy-------------------------------------------------------------------------- 30
B. Solar Electricity---------------------------------------------------------------------- 37
C. Biomass – Introduction------------------------------------------------------------- 45
D. Microalgae---------------------------------------------------------------------------- 48
E. Grasses-------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 52
F. Other High Productivity Biomass.------------------------------------------------- 54
G. Some Conclusions about Biomass------------------------------------------------- 58
H. Solar Hydrogen---------------------------------------------------------------------- 59
I. Wave Energy------------------------------------------------------------------------- 61
J. Hot Rock Geothermal Energy------------------------------------------------------ 61
K. Energy Storage Technologies------------------------------------------------------ 62
1. Batteries-------------------------------------------------------------------------- 63
2. Capacitors------------------------------------------------------------------------ 67
3. Compressed Air Storage-------------------------------------------------------- 69
L. Long-term Sequestration of CO2--------------------------------------------------- 71
Chapter 4: Technologies – Demand-Side Sectors-------------------------------- 73
A. Residential and Commercial Sectors---------------------------------------------- 73
Lighting------------------------------------------------------------------------------ 82
B. Transportation------------------------------------------------------------------------ 83
1. Fuel for Jet Aircraft------------------------------------------------------------- 84
2. Public Transportation----------------------------------------------------------- 88
C. The Industrial Sector---------------------------------------------------------------- 92
Chapter 5: A Reference Zero-CO2 Scenario-------------------------------------- 95
A. Residential and Commercial Energy Use----------------------------------------- 96
B. Transportation and Industry-------------------------------------------------------- 98
C. Electricity Production--------------------------------------------------------------101
1. Methodological Note on Thermal and Other Losses in
Electricity Production----------------------------------------------------------101
2. Electricity in the Reference Scenario----------------------------------------103
D. Overall Results----------------------------------------------------------------------107
Land Use Considerations---------------------------------------------------------107
Chapter 6: Options for the Roadmap to Zero-CO2 Emissions---------------112
A. Hydrogen Production from Solar and Wind Energy---------------------------112
B. Efficiency and Electricity----------------------------------------------------------115
C. Stationary Storage of Electricity--------------------------------------------------117
D. Feedstocks and Industrial Energy-------------------------------------------------117
E. Natural Gas Combined Cycle and Coal as Contingencies for
the Electric Grid---------------------------------------------------------------------118
F. Structural Changes in the Economy----------------------------------------------119
G. Some Considerations in Setting Target Dates for Zero-CO2------------------121
1. Historical Examples------------------------------------------------------------121
2. Demand Sector Considerations for a Target Phase-out Date-------------123
H. Estimating a Phase-out Schedule-------------------------------------------------125
1. Ozone-depleting Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs)-----------------------------125
2. A Range of Dates for Zero-CO2 Emissions---------------------------------126
Chapter 7: Policy Considerations--------------------------------------------------129
A. A CO2 Emissions Cap Declining to Zero----------------------------------------131
1. Early Action Rewards----------------------------------------------------------135
2. Defining “Large Users” of Fossil Fuels-------------------------------------135
3. Penalties-------------------------------------------------------------------------138
4. Revenues------------------------------------------------------------------------138
B. Small Users of Fossil Fuels--------------------------------------------------------139
1. Time-of-use Rates--------------------------------------------------------------140
2. Incentives and Rebates--------------------------------------------------------141
3. Achieving Zero-CO2 Emissions for Small Users---------------------------142
C. Government Actions----------------------------------------------------------------142
D. New Coal-fired Power Plants-----------------------------------------------------144
E. Ending Subsidies for Nuclear Power and Fossil Fuels------------------------144
F. Corporate and NGO Actions------------------------------------------------------145
Chapter 8: Roadmap for a Zero-CO2 Economy---------------------------------147
A. A Preferred Renewable Energy Scenario----------------------------------------147
B. Timeline for Transformation------------------------------------------------------149
C. Macroeconomics of the Transition-----------------------------------------------158
1. The Residential and Commercial Sectors-----------------------------------159
2. Transportation-------------------------------------------------------------------162
D. Projecting Business-as-usual------------------------------------------------------163
Chapter 9: Summary-----------------------------------------------------------------165
A. Findings------------------------------------------------------------------------------166
B. Recommendations: The Clean Dozen--------------------------------------------175
Afterword-------------------------------------------------------------------------------176
Glossary---------------------------------------------------------------------------------178
Appendix A: Nuclear Power--------------------------------------------------------181
A. History--------------------------------------------------------------------------------181
B. Nuclear Waste-----------------------------------------------------------------------184
The Global Nuclear Energy Program-------------------------------------------188
C. Cost-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------189
D. Nuclear Power and Global Climate Change------------------------------------190
Appendix B: Interview Regarding Industrial Greenhouse
Gas Emissions----------------------------------------------------------------------193
Appendix C: Japan Focus Interview on Carbon-Free and Nuclear-Free--203
Endnotes--------------------------------------------------------------------------------208
References-------------------------------------------------------------------------------220

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