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 Canada is regularly presented as a country where liberalism has ensured freedom and equality for all. Yet with the expansion of settlers into the First Nations territories that became southern Alberta and BC, liberalism proved to be an exclusionary rather than inclusionary force.
Between 1877 and 1927, government officials, police officers, church representatives, ordinary settlers, and many others operated to exclude and reform Indigenous people.
Presenting Anglo-Canadian liberal capitalist values and structures and interests as normal, natural, and beyond reproach devalued virtually every aspect of Indigenous cultures. This book explores the means used to facilitate and justify colonization, their effects on Indigenous economic, political, social, and spiritual lives, and how they were resisted.
Keith D. Smith is Chair of the Department of First Nations Studies and teaches in the Department of History at Vancouver Island University in Nanaimo, British Columbia.
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By Keith D. Smith
Published by AU Press, Athabasca University
1200, 10011 – 109 Street
Edmonton, AB T5J 3S8
CONTENTS
CHAPTER ONE
The Liberal Surveillance Complex 1
Imperialism and Colonial Expansion in Western Canada 7
Liberalism 11
Liberalism and Surveillance 16
Knowing Indians 18
The Homogenizing Impact of “National” History 21
The Agency/Coercion Binary 22
Investigating Colonialism as Cultural Formation and Concrete Experience 23
CHAPTER TWO
The Transformation of Indigenous Territory 29
The Peoples of Treaty 7 31
The Peoples of the Kamloops and Okanagan Regions 36
European Disruptions 42
Reserves as Reformatory Spaces 48
CHAPTER THREE
Churches, Police Forces, and the Department of Indian Affairs 51
Missionary Surveillance and the Surveillance of Missionaries 52
Police Surveillance 56
The Pass System 60
Restriction of Movement in British Columbia 73
Mounted Police and the DIA 77
The Visual Impact of the Mounted Police 81
Relations Between the NWMP and the BCPP 82
Force Strength and External Assistance 83
Police Forces and Indigenous Employees 84
Surveillance of Police 89
CHAPTER FOUR
Disciplinary Surveillance and the Department of Indian Affairs 93
The Department of Indian Affairs’ Hierarchy 96
The Permit System 99
DIA Employees and the Expense of Surveillance 103
Surveillance by and of Indian Agents 104
DIA Surveillance, Indigenous Employment, and Cooperation 123
CHAPTER FIVE
The British Columbia Interior and the Treaty 7 Region to 1877 131
Indian Policy in Canada and the United States 132
Indigenous Lands and Settler Interests 133
Application of Scientific Geography in Western Canada 134
British Columbia Before 1877 138
Indigenous Resistance to 1877 in the British Columbia Interior 143
Establishment of the Joint Reserve Commission 144
The Treaty 7 Region Before 1877 145
Comparing Treaty 7 and the British Columbia Interior Before 1877 147
British Columbia in 1877 149
The Treaty 7 Region in 1877 152
Land Retained in the Text of Treaty 7 156
CHAPTER SIX
The British Columbia Interior, 1877 to 1927 161
Churches and Indigenous Lands in British Columbia 167
Indigenous Resistance in British Columbia Before World War I 170
Long Lake Surrender 173
The McKenna-McBride Commission 179
Indigenous Resistance and the Issue of Consent in British Columbia 188
The Special Joint Committee of 1927 192
CHAPTER SEVEN
The Treaty 7 Region After 1877 197
Nakoda 198
Tsuu T’ina 200
Kainai 203
Piikani 210
Siksika 213
Reserve Reductions and the Nature of Consent 219
CHAPTER EIGHT
Exclusionary Liberalism in World War I and Beyond 223
Conclusion 231
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