The proliferation of sexualized images of girls and young women in advertising, merchandising, and media is harming girls' self-image and healthy development. This report explores the cognitive and emotional consequences, consequences for mental and physical health, and impact on development of a healthy sexual self-image.

Introduction:

There are many examples of the sexualization of girls and girlhood in U.S. culture.Toy manufacturers produce dolls wearing black leather miniskirts, feather boas, and thigh-high boots and market them to 8- to 12- year-old girls (LaFerla, 2003). Clothing stores sell thongs sized for 7– to 10-year-old girls (R. Brooks, 2006; Cook & Kaiser, 2004), some printed with slogans such as “eye candy” or “wink wink” (Cook & Kaiser, 2004; Haynes, 2005; Levy, 2005a; Merskin, 2004); other thongs sized for women and late adolescent girls are imprinted with characters from Dr. Seuss and the Muppets (e.g., see www.princesscassie.com/children/cat.shtml) (Levy, 2005a; Pollett & Hurwitz, 2004).

In the world of child beauty pageants, 5-year-old girls wear fake teeth, hair extensions, and makeup and are encouraged to “flirt” onstage by batting their long, false eyelashes (Cookson, 2001). On prime-time television, girls can watch fashion shows in which models made to resemble little girls wear sexy lingerie (e.g., the CBS broadcast of Victoria’s Secret Fashion Show on December 6, 2005). Journalists, child advocacy organizations, parents, and psychologists have become alarmed, arguing that the sexualization of girls is a broad and increasing problem and is harmful to girls (Bloom, 2004;“Buying Into Sexy,” 2005; Dalton, 2005; Lamb & Brown, 2006; Levin, 2005; Levy, 2005a; Linn, 2004; Pollet & Hurwitz, 2004; Schor, 2004).

The Task Force on the Sexualization of Girls was formed in response to these expressions of public concern. In this report,we examine and summarize psychological theory, research, and clinical experience addressing the sexualization of girls.

We (a) define sexualization; (b) examine the prevalence and provide examples of sexualization in society and in cultural institutions, as well as interpersonally and intrapsychically; (c) evaluate the evidence suggesting that sexualization has negative consequences for girls and for the rest of society; and (d) describe positive alternatives that may help counteract the influence of sexualization.

Visit Report of the APA Task Force on the Sexualization of Girls Website

© 2007 by the American Psychological Association.

Table of Contents:

Preface .  .1
Introduction . . .. .2
Definition . . . .2
Scope of This Report . . .. . .3
Evidence for the Sexualization of Girls . .  . .5
Cultural Contributions . . . .5
Interpersonal Contributions . .. .15
Intrapsychic Contributions . . . .18
Summary of Evidence for the Sexualization of Girls  . .19
Consequences of the Sexualization of Girls . . .19
Mechanisms by Which Sexualization Has an Impact . . .19
Developmental Processes Relevant to the Sexualization of Girls . ..21
Impact on Girls’ Health and Well-Being . . .21
Impact on Others . . . .29
Impact on Society . . .  . .31
Summary of Consequences of the Sexualization of Girls . . . .35
Positive Alternatives and Approaches to Counteracting the Influence of Sexualization .  .36
Approach 1:Working Through Schools and Formal Education . . .  . .36
Approach 2:Working Through the Family . . . ..38
Approach 3:Working Directly With Girls and Girls’ Groups to Resist .. .39
Summary of Positive Alternatives and Approaches to Counteracting the Influence of Sexualization    42
Recommendations . . .  . . .42
References . . . . .45
Appendix . . . . .. .66
Report of the APA Task Force on the Sexualization of Girls    iii

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Appendix
Empowering Girls: Media Literacy

This list of resources was provided to APA’s Council of Representatives with the Report of the Task Force on the Sexualization of Girls and has been filed with APA.This means that the list of resources has not been adopted as a policy of APA nor has APA endorsed each of the resources cited.This list of resources is provided only for information and reference purposes.

About-Face
www.about-face.org/

ACT—Alliance for Children and Television
www.act-aet.tv/english/index.asp

Advocates for Youth
www.advocatesforyouth.org

Center for Media Literacy
www.medialit.org/focus/ster1_articles.html

Dads and Daughters
www.dadsanddaughters.org

Girl Scouts of America
www.girlscouts.org

Girls Inc.
www.girlsinc.org

Girls Inc. Media Literacy
www.girlsinc.org/ic/page.php?id=1.2.3

Girls,Women, + Media Project
www.mediaandwomen.org/resources.html

Hardy Girls Healthy Women
www.hardygirlshealthywomen.org

Mainely Girls
www.midcoast.com/~megirls/

Media Awareness Network
www.media-awareness.ca/english/index.cfm
www.media-awareness.ca/english/special_initiatives/girl_guides/index.cfm

Media Literacy Clearinghouse
http://medialit.med.sc.edu/bodyimage.htm

medialiteracy.com
www1.medialiteracy.com/representation.jsp

Mediawise
www.mediafamily.org

New Moon Magazine
www.newmooncatalog.com/store/departments.asp?dept=7

See Jane/Improving Gender Portrayals in Children’s Media
http://seejane.org/

Teen Voices/Women’s Express
www.teenvoices.com/tvhome.html

Third Wave Foundation
www.thirdwavefoundation.org/

uniquely Me! The Girl Scouts/Dove Self-Esteem Program
www.girlscouts.org/program/program_opportunities/leadership/uniquelyme.asp

Words Can Work
www.wordscanwork.com

Preface:

At the recommendation of the American Psychological Association (APA) Committee on Women in Psychology (CWP) and with the approval of the Board for the Advancement of Psychology in the Public Interest (BAPPI) and the Board of Directors, APA’s Council of Representatives established the Task Force on the Sexualization of Girls in February 2005.

The Council charged the task force as follows: The Task Force will examine and summarize the best psychological theory, research, and clinical experience addressing the sexualization of girls via media and other cultural messages, including the prevalence of these messages and their impact on girls, and include attention to the role and impact of race/ethnicity and socioeconomic status.The Task Force will produce a report, including recommendations for research, practice, education and training, policy, and public awareness.

APA has long been involved in issues related to the impact of media content on children. In 1994,APA adopted a policy resolution on Violence in Mass Media, which updated and expanded an earlier resolution on televised violence. In 2004, the APA Task Force on Advertising and Children produced a report examining broad issues related to advertising to children.That report provided recommendations to restrict advertising that is primarily directed at young children and to include developmentally appropriate disclaimers in advertising.

The report also included recommendations regarding research, applied psychology, industry practices, media literacy, advertising, and schools.The sexualization of girls in advertising was outside the scope of that report, however, and the issue was therefore not addressed. In 2005,APA adopted the policy resolution on Violence in Video Games and Interactive Media, which documented the negative impact of exposure to violent interactive media on children and youth and called for the reduction of violence in these media.These resolutions and reports addressed how violent media and advertising affect children and youth, but they did not address the issue of sexualization.

BAPPI appointed six psychologists plus a public member to the Task Force on the Sexualization of Girls: Eileen L. Zurbriggen, PhD (Chair); Rebecca L. Collins, PhD; Sharon Lamb, EdD;Tomi-Ann Roberts, PhD; Deborah L.Tolman, EdD; L. Monique Ward, PhD; and Jeanne Blake (Public Member, Blake Works, Inc.). Jessica Henderson Daniel, PhD, served as liaison from the Board of Directors. Janet Shibley Hyde, PhD, and Louise B.
Silverstein, PhD, served as liaisons from CWP.

Task force members are indebted to the following individuals for their thoughtful reviews and comments on earlier versions of this report: Denise Alston, PhD;Toni Antonucci, PhD;Thema Bryant-Davis, PhD; Bonita Cade, PhD; Joan Chrisler, PhD; Ellen Cole, PhD; Lillian Comas-Diaz, PhD; Deborah Cox, PhD; Jessica Henderson Daniel, PhD;Melissa Farley, PhD; Barbara Fiese, PhD; Jennifer Gibson, PhD; Mary Gregerson, PhD; Janet Shibley Hyde, PhD; Lisa Jaycox, PhD; Joe Kelly; Susan Linn, EdD; Jeanne Marecek, PhD; Susan Newcomer, PhD; Jaquelyn Resnick, PhD; Glenda Russell, PhD; Julia da Silva; Louise Silverstein, PhD; Catherine Steiner-Adair, EdD; Lisa Thomas, PhD; and Maryanne Watson, PhD.

The task force also expresses its appreciation to Gwendolyn Puryear Keita, PhD (Executive Director, Public Interest Directorate), for her guidance and support.APA staff who worked with and supported the task force in developing this report include Leslie A. Cameron, Gabriel H. J.Twose, and Tanya L. Burrwell. Gabriele McCormick assisted in the preparation of the draft.Women’s Programs Office intern Ashley Byrd and visiting middle-school student Alexis Hicks also provided helpful comments.

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